Space Shuttle Challenger Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Space Shuttle Challenger - Research Paper Example Around 73 seconds after the flight of the space shuttle it was seen that it exploded in the sky. The loss was terrible to a country that was looking for the success of the space shuttle. The space shuttle had seven astronauts who were killed instantly after the explosion. A teacher known as Christi McAuliffe was also in the crew members and she also died in the explosion. The Space Shuttle Challenger explosion occurred because of several reasons and was not associated to a single problem. Even after 25 years of the explosion the people of America have not forgotten the incident and it is still remembered all over. The National Aeronautics Space Association has taken several steps to ensure that such an accident does not occur again. This essay would further revolve around the Space Shuttle Challenger and would provide information regarding it (Travers et al 2011). History The concept of Space shuttle originated in the 1960s when Apollo was being built by the authorities. Ever since t he genesis of the shuttle project the authorities tried to build a space shuttle which could be used again for future missions. Initially the space shuttle challenger was known as STA-099 and worked as a test vehicle but soon it was to be converted into a space bound shuttle. In 1979 the National Aeronautics Space Association gave the contract of converting STA-099 into an orbiter OV-099. It was in that very year that the process began and was completed soon enough without going into much hassle. OV-099 was known as the Challenger and reached the grounds of Kennedy Space Center in 1982. The word ‘Challenger’ was given to the shuttle because of the success of a research naval vessel known as HMS Challenger. Similarly the name of the lunar module of Apollo 17 was also Challenger. The Space Shuttle underwent many tests before finally going on the mission in 1986 which changed the course of history. It launched almost 21 missions from the year of 1982 to 1986 and all of the se missions were successful except for the last one (Presidential Commission 1986; NASA, Space Shuttle Overview 2011). Mission The Space Shuttle Challenger was go on a mission called STS-51L which had several targets to be achieved. The mission of the space shuttle was to deploy a satellite known as TDRS-B. The mission included a program known as Comet Halley Active Monitoring Program (CHAMP) along with a video program known as the Teacher in space program. The program teacher in space had become very popular amongst the masses as a teacher was also included in the group of astronauts leaving in the challenger. Fluid dynamics experiment was also planned by the astronauts, which had to be broadcasted by the teacher. The teacher was entitled to provide two lectures to the students so that they could know more about life in space. It was believed that the program by the teacher would help to create an interest amongst the students and this would be a revolution in the arena of educatio n (NASA, Mission Archives 2011). Crew Members The mission 51-L consisted of around seven astronauts who unfortunately were not able to complete their task because of mishaps. Francis Scobee was the commander of the space shuttle and had previous experience of flying the shuttle on the 41-C mission. Michael Smith was selected as the captain of the shuttle and this was his first experience on a space shuttle. Colonel Ellison Onizuka played the role of a test engineer and had prior experience in space shuttle

A report on Agile and OOAD Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

A report on Agile and OOAD - Research Paper Example Guidelines for Combining Agile with other approaches 9 VIII. Case Study 10 IX. Recommendations and Challenges 10 X. Bibliography 11 I. Introduction In the past few years, there have emerged a large number of software development practices and processes. In this scenario, agile software development methodologies have become a trend in quickly changing software industry. In the past, only the traditional software development methodology was the only method to develop software products. However, it was not supportive for late changes and iterations. In order to deal with the issues presented in traditional software development approaches there emerged a very attractive software development approach, known as agile software development. Soon it became a standard software development approach which received a great deal of support of all kinds of experts from the software industry. At the present, the majority of software development firms and software developers are aware of agile softwa re development methodologies. They use it all the way through the software development lifecycle. Basically, agile software development approach is based on some principles which can be tailored according to varying requirements of software projects. This report will present a detailed analysis of agile software development. ... In this scenario, the term â€Å"agile† is used to reveal number of meanings like that implement changes rapidly, deliver the completed product rapidly and accommodate change frequently. In view of the fact that there are a large number of software development approaches (for instance Scrum, XP and many more) which come under the umbrella of agile software development paradigm and they differ in emphasis and practices, however they all follow the same principles which come under agile agenda. In this scenario, many researchers present the common description of the agile manifesto. According to researchers agile methodology and its family members are based on the following principles (Kavitha & Thomas, 2011; Lucia & Qusef, 2010; Paetsch, 2003): Working software application or a product should be delivered as rapidly and regularly as possible (it should be delivered in days in place of weeks and in weeks in place of months) Working software application should give an insight int o the progress of the overall project Improving the customer satisfaction by providing them rapid and regular release of implemented software application. Agile software development methodologies are aimed at supporting and accommodating late changes all the way through the software development lifecycle. In fact, late changes in requirements are effectively accommodated without having serious effects on the overall development or project. Agile software methodologies are designed to support effective collaboration, communication and close on a daily basis cooperation between business people and developers in fact among all the stakeholders Agile software development methodologies are highly based on

The View That Transnational Corporations Are Footloose Economics Essay

The View That Transnational Corporations Are Footloose Economics Essay Introduction For decades, business has existed in almost every country around the world; regardless of what industries those businesses belong to. Whether it is agriculture, finance, food and beverage, service, etc., it all started long before modern businesses were established. As of today, we can see that various corporations exist in every country around the world, regardless of name, type and the size of it. There are about 23,343,821 corporations in the US alone (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002), which still is where the majority of companies come from. These corporations all adopt different structures, all the more complex when they expand their operations to foreign countries. According to Dicken (2007), there are 4 types of TNC organisations which are Multinational, International, Global and Integrated Network. Each type serves different functions for the company; so depending on the businesses the company is involved, the organisation culture and the decision making of top management, companies adopt the one type that suits them the best. Examples of TNC organisations are such as Microsoft, Toyota and Samsung. These TNCs started off as small organisations within their own domestic countries and have been very successful domestically. Once they dominated their domestic markets, market share was no longer sufficient to satisfy their growing desire for increase market share and profits. This resulted in them moving their businesses into foreign markets and expanded their business scope globally, which began with exports and then FDI as they could exploit differences in costs in those countries. We can now see that these TNCs exist not only in a few countries but some even have developed to numerous countries and markets. These transnational corporations are deemed as companies that have supremacy to coordinate and control operations in more than one country, even if it does not own them (Dicken, 2007). According to BBC, TNCs are massive firms that conduct their businesses in several countries and some are wealthier compa red to less developed countries. (http://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/find_out/guides/world/trade/newsid_3099000/3099680.stm) There is an ongoing debate on the issue of whether TNCs are actually that powerful to be considered footloose. Footloose is defined as mobility of companies moving in and out of countries if they find it attractive in terms of market or resources opportunities. Market opportunities are such as consumers, governments regulations, number of competitors, etc. Resource opportunities on the other hand, are like labour costs, raw materials availability and technology accessibility. In this task, a detailed assessment on TNCs and their operations will be done to help determine the fact on whether TNCs are footloose or not. Findings TNCs are Footloose Profits Labour costs TNCs open up operations in foreign countries according to geographic matters which benefits to them. In a certain extent to this, I agree that TNCs are footloose. Based on the example of Nestlà ©, we can assume that TNCs are footloose. Nestlà © was established in Switzerland, a small country where market size is not as large as in US or UK. Today, Nestlà © is one of the leading food and beverage manufacturers in the world (Food Engineering Magazine, 2010). After 5 months of its establishment, it started manufacturing outside of Switzerland. It did not export its products to other countries because of its companys mentality to always produce locally rather than exporting. Thus, it conducted FDI and built manufacturing plants in foreign countries such as US (Appendix 1). As TNCs are capitalist where profit is key for them (Dicken, 2007), TNCs like Nestlà © expanded globally to increase profits, market share and brand equity. Besides market opportunities, Nestlà © also built a plan t in China to take opportunities on its low labour costs in 2007 (Appendix 2). Both points to two broad categories of motivation for companies to engage in transactional operations which are market and asset orientated (Dicken, 2007). Market factors are size, structure and accessibility (Dicken, 2007). Asset factors point to knowledge and skill, wage costs, labour productivity, labour controllability and labour mentality (Dicken, 2007). This applies to Nestlà © due to its company culture, where it hails from Switzerland. Its history points to Nestlà © utilising its strong brand equity and financial structure to negotiate its way into foreign countries (Nestlà ©, 2010), also by offering improvements to infrastructure and job opportunities to the locals. According to IMF (2001), with entrance of TNCs into countries, this will create jobs for unskilled workers as they have difficulty in searching jobs, moving their social class from lower class to middle class. Internal competences Hymer (1960) stated that domestic companies always had advantage over foreign firms as they understood the environment better; but foreign companies could out-compete domestic companies based on firm-specific assets such as firm size, economies of scale, etc (Dicken, 2007). Companies like HSBC started out domestically but soon built up its brand name globally which was used as an advantage to move into countries and compete with their domestic firms. It currently operates in more than 60 countries and is one of the leading banks in the world (Appendix 3). Dunning (1980) suggested that firms like HSBC engaged in transactional production was due to it having ownership-specific advantages not possessed by competitors such as knowledge, technology, etc., where it internalised these advantages and keeping it secret from competitors; also because of location-specific factors, some of these advantages has to be used in certain locations (Dicken, 2007), for example, they have strong human re sources (HSBC Finance, 2009) and can use it to train the labour from China about their operations, transferring knowledge as well as saving labour costs simultaneously. This benefits both HSBC and China as the company gains in terms of cost saving while China earns new knowledge regarding how to conduct banking and utilise it for their domestic banks later. Access to markets WTO is one of the main reasons why TNCs are considered as footloose, such as the deregulation of the financial services in 2001. This is because WTO discovered the benefits outweighed the risk of doing so. By allowing foreign banks to enter domestic markets, it could help strengthen the financial systems in those developing countries, such as by improving the quality and efficiency of financial services. Although domestic banks suffer through the sudden increase of competition, customers gain as banks reduce interest rates and are also provide a wider range of services to customers. These benefits however depended on how it was timed with other financial reformations such as domestic financial deregulation and capital account liberalisation. In the case of the EU, internationalisation can actually support domestic deregulation (Appendix 4). Nevertheless, internationalisation is not fully dependant on other financial reformations; it could still help in stabilising capital flows as we ll as the financial sector of a country. Lastly, governments still need to set up regulations for foreign banks although the industry was deregulated, as this could control their operations to a certain extent. Thus, with all these, the phenomenon of international banks such as HSBC entering different foreign market has been gradually increasing, as long the regulations set for them are complied. Generally, TNCs help foreign countries gain job opportunities and improve growth for industries. For example, the banking industries in less developed countries like Vietnam are getting more competent due to threat of foreign banks entering the country (IFC, 2009). Both domestic banks and government will benefit from this as banks have to improve their services while governments earn the taxes paid by TNCs to boost growth of the country (John Madeley, 2003). Besides liberalisation increasing competition between domestic and foreign firms, competition between governments exists as well. Certain countries around the world loosened their regulations in order to attract foreign investments into the countries (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNCTAD, 2008). These countries are mainly developing countries as they require the economy boosts. This is done by lowering tax rates as incentives for TNCs to enter. As governments compete, this inadvertently increases TNCs footloose cause they have choices of entering and exiting countries that are desperately fighting over their entrance. TNCs are NOT Footloose Costs Some empirical studies has classified TNCs are more footloose compared to domestic companies, meaning that they are more prone to leaving an industry compared to a domestic firms of the same size. (Gà ¶rg and Strobl, 2003; Bernard and Sjà ¶holm, 2003; and Van Beveren, 2007) The exit process is slowed down though, by TNCs abundance in sources of income. Added by the fact that TNCs are less knowledgeable about the business environment and have to encounter unexpected barriers, they can afford to make losses initially and try to claw back those losses. Unless the losses are too much and hard to bear; only then these TNCs decide to leave the country. Therefore, it is debatable that TNCs are not as footloose as people think they are. Government Technology

Sensible Anonymity on the Internet Essay -- Exploratory Essays Researc

Sensible Anonymity on the Internet Abstract: This paper is an analysis of the anonymity of Internet users. Specifically, what are the benefits and disadvantages created by anonymity on the Internet, and how can the disadvantages be lessened without adversely affecting the benefits? The rapid growth of the Internet’s popularity is staggering. In 1990 few people outside the research community knew of it, and today it is estimated that there are more than 300 million Internet users worldwide (1). It is unlikely that any previous notable form of media or technology (radio, telephony, automobiles, or television, for instance) gained such widespread usage so quickly. When one adds up the cost of a computer, modem, ISP1, busying a phone line and the time it takes to download/upload email/websites it seems obvious that it is not cheap or easy to surf the net. The anonymity that the Internet provides its users is a key factor in why the Internet has become so incredibly popular so quickly. The benefits of anonymity on the Internet outweight the disadvantages, however something should needs to be done to reduce or eliminate the disadvantages without adversely impeding the advantages. The ability to have your own anonymous website (geocities.yahoo.com) with an anonymous email address to go with it (mail.yahoo.com or www.hotmail.com) is extremely alluring to the general public. No programming ability is required when programs such as Microsoft FrontPage ® and Adobe GoLive ® help you create webpages using a simple word-processor-like interface. Formerly, one had to be an established, professional journalist, author or artist to have relatively any chance to publicly express your views, opinions and/or creativity. Wi... ...mity.html>. (July 21, 1999). 3. Al Teich, Mark S. Frankel, Rob Kling, Ya-ching Lee. â€Å"Anonymous Communication Policies for the Internet: Results and Recommendations of the AAAS Conference† The Information Society 15(2) (Version 14/January 27 1999). Notes: 1 Internet Service Provider 2 A remailer is a free, online service through which emails can be sent. The remailer will send the email on to its final destination, but the transmission history of that email will be erased before it is sent. 3 American Association for the Advancement of Science 1 Internet Service Provider 2 A remailer is a free, online service through which emails can be sent. The remailer will send the email on to its final destination, but the transmission history of that email will be erased before it is sent. 3 American Association for the Advancement of Science

Employment At Will Doctrine Essay

†¢Summarize the employment-at-will doctrine and evaluate each of the eight (8) scenarios described by determining: The employment-at-will doctrine states that an employee can be fired or released from a company for cause or no cause at all. The employee also has the right to quit a job for any reason. Under this legislation, neither the employer or employee incurs â€Å"adverse legal consequences† (NCSL, 2014). There are three exceptions that are observed by the law to include a dismissal that â€Å"violates a state’s public policy, where there is an implied contract for employment, or where there is an implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing† (Muhl, 2001, p4). People cannot be fired based on the â€Å"individual’s race, color, religion, sex, or national origin† (Halbert & Ingulli, 2012, p134). An individual can also not be fired based on a disability or due to filing a workman’s comp claim. Imagine you are a recently-hired Chief Operating Officer (COO) in a midsize company preparing for an Initial Public Offering (IPO). You quickly discover multiple personnel problems that require your immediate attention. As an astute manager, you will need to analyze the employment-at-will doctrine and determine what, if any, exceptions and liabilities exist before taking any action. oWhether you can legally fire the employee; include an assessment of any pertinent exceptions to the employment-at-will doctrine. oWhat action you should take to limit liability and impact on operations; specify which ethical theory best supports your decision. †¢John posted a rant on his Facebook page in which he criticized the company’s most important customer. John’s actions took place on his own time, and the information was posted on his personal site. The action from the company would depend on whether John made the post and none of his coworkers chimed in or agreed with him, or if someone did agree with him. Concerted activity is protected under the law but not grunts and groaning from one employee. According to Eidelson (2012), â€Å"concerted activity will take different forms for different workers†. Quite simply put, John’s post could cause a loss of business for the company or even a disgruntled customer, not to mention the company’s most important customer. The company would be protected in firing him. I made this decision based on the Ethics  of Care. John made a comment about our most important customer, and it is the company’s business to make sure the customer continues to be our most important customer. †¢Jim sent an email to other salespeople protesting a change in commission schedules and bonuses and suggesting everyone boycott the next sales meeting. Jim’s case is interesting. The answer to firing him is it depends. If Jim is disgruntled and just decided to send out an email to all of his coworkers to get them roweled up, then he could be fired legally. However, if he had been talking to other employees and then sent them an email to further talk about actions to take, he would be protected under the law as â€Å"protected concerted activity† (Eidelson, 2012). Also, the judge may look at Jim’s case to see if he talked with any of the upper management about concerns before trying to get others to boycott. The judge would check to see if Jim was part of a union as well. In one case where an employee sent an email, the judge ruled that her firing was legal, because her email â€Å"merely expressed an individual gripe rather than any shared concerns about w orking conditions† (Newby, 2013). Since this description did not say that other employees joined in with Jim, the judge would rule that his firing was legal. After firing Jim, I would call a meeting with the rest of the employees to make sure that Jim’s attitude towards the company had not spread to others and to try to find some solutions if it had. I made this decision based on the Virtue Ethics model. †¢Ellen started a blog to protest the CEO’s bonus, noting that no one below director has gotten a raise in two (2) years and portraying her bosses as â€Å"know-nothings† and â€Å"out-of-touch†. Ellen started a blog to protest the CEO’s bonus. The employer would need to make sure that Ellen’s post had not been commented on by other employees who were in agreement with her. The company should also look to its’ social media policy if it has one. The employer could be covered if the policy states that employees cannot speak derogatorily about their boss or coworkers online. The â€Å"National Labor Relations Act states that workers have the right to discuss their wages and conditions of employment†; however, â€Å"griping or ranting by a single employee is not protected† (Rogers, 2013). Ellen stepped across the line by criticizing the CEO of the company and calling him names. This could cause a rift in the company and lower morale. The company would be justified in firing Ellen. I would do this based on Deontology which focuses on rights and duties,  telling the truth and fairness (Halbert & Ingulli, 2012, p17). †¢Bill has been using his company-issued BlackBerry to run his own business on the side. Bill was given the company-issued BlackBerry to use for work. As I read in most articles, it is expected that in this digital age employees will use their employers’ equipment for some type of personal use. Most companies have policies on the use of company equipment. If Bill is a good employee, there is no loss of productivity, a nd the majority of his personal business is taking place during off-time, Bill should not be fired, and it would not be deemed legal, unless the company’s policy says something different. The company’s policy should be â€Å"clearly communicated to all employees and† and be â€Å"consistently enforced† as well (BizFilings, 2012). Bill should be aware that the employer †generally can monitor, listen in and record employee phone calls on employer owned phones† to include â€Å"voice mail and text messages† (Bussing, 2011). So if his employer found that he was exchanging insider information about the company through the company BlackBerry, they would be justified in firing him. I chose this course of action based on Virtue Ethics. If Bill feels his employer trusts him, he will most likely remain trustworthy and honest to the company. †¢The secretaries in the accounting department decided to dress in black-and-white stripes to protest a memo announcing that the company has installed keylogger software on all company computers. The secretaries could not be legally fired in this instance. The secretaries would also be covered under the National Labor Relations Act. They are silently protesting the keylogger software. There is more than one person involved in this silent protest and they have the right to discuss â€Å"conditions of employment† (Rogers, 2013). I chose this based on the Ethics of Care. The secretaries obviously do not agree with a new procedure in the workplace. The upper management should not come down on them for that. The secretaries are quietly organizing themselves, and they should have the right to disagree. †¢After being disciplined for criticizing a customer in an email (sent from his personal email account on a company computer), Joe threatens to sue the company for invasion of privacy. Company computers are company computers. The company has the right to information that is sent on its’ computers, especially during work hours. Joe should not be discussing work business through his personal emails. Joe would not be covered under the First  Amendment, because it â€Å"protects all of us from the government, not from private companies† (NOLO, 2014). I chose this action based on Free Market Ethics. This model focuses on what is good for the company. Joe cannot stay with the company while criticizing the customers, especially through his personal email at work. If the company keeps Joe around and the information gets out, it could lose more than it would by letting him go. †¢One of the department supervisors requests your approval to fire his secretary for insubordination. Since the secretary has always received glowing reviews, you call her into your office and determine that she has refused to prepare false expense reports for her boss. The secretary’s firing would not be justified in this situation. Although the secretary is an employee at will who could be fired for cause or no reason at all, it appears that the secretary is being retaliated against for refusing to prepare corrupt documents. The secretary’s reviews have always been great, so there is no presence of a developmental plan or previous violations of company policy. The company most likely has some type of policy for progressive discipline, so if the supervisor did not follow the plan to the letter, the firing would not be justified. I chose this action based on Deontology. The employer has the obligation to be honest and to remain steadfast â€Å"to universal princip les† (Halbert & Ingulli, 2012, p17). †¢Anna’s boss refused to sign her leave request for jury duty and now wants to fire her for being absent without permission. Anna’s boss could not legally fire her due to serving jury duty. â€Å"Most states prohibit employers from firing or disciplining employees called to serve on a juryâ€Å" and some states â€Å"prohibit employers from trying to discourage or intimidate employees from serving† (NOLO, 2014). Anna’s boss could be â€Å"held in contempt of court† if Anna did not show up to court because of her employer’s decision (Gordon, 2012). I chose this action based on Utilitarianism, because the choice of firing Anna due to attending jury duty may have a detrimental effect on the entire workplace. As you proceed with your investigation, you discover the company has no whistleblower policy. †¢Take a position on whether or not you would recommend to the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) that the company adopt a whistleblower policy. Support the position. I would recommend to the CEO that the company adopt a whistleblower policy. It is important to have such a policy so that people know the proper steps to take when disclosing  information of wrongdoing in the workplace and know that they will be protected for sharing such information. In the situation between the supervisor and his secretary, a whistleblowing policy could have exposed the issue earlier. It seemed that the secretary did not tell anyone about the supervisor pressuring her to create false documents, until she was faced with losing her job. †¢Justify at least three (3) fundamental items that should be included in a whistleblower policy. Provide a rationale for your selection of each of the three (3) recommended items. The first item that should be included in a whistleblower policy is the â€Å"responsibility to disclose that information to appropriate parties inside the organization† (Barnett, 1992). The employees are the ones who are going to see the wrongdoing most likely. Without laying the responsibility on the employees, they may not know how important it is to the company and may not feel supported in their efforts to share information. This part of the policy should also include that the process will take place within the organization and that all information given should be done so â€Å"in good faith† (Barnett, 1992). The second item that should be included in a whistleblowing policy is a group of neutral people â€Å"outside the chain of command as complaint recipients† (Barnett, 199 2). This should make people feel more comfortable sharing violations, because they don’t have to worry about backlash from sharing information. It would make it much harder for an employee to disclose information to the group if he knew the person he was telling on was best friends with someone on the committee. Finally, the policy should outline the steps of the investigation process and give assurance to the whistleblower that there will be no â€Å"adverse employment consequences† (Barnett, 1992). The Whistleblower Acts should also be included in the employee handbook so that employees not only understand the policy within their current workplace, but as it is stated by the government. The employee will know what is covered and what is not. References Barnett, T. (1992). Why Your Company Should Have a Whistleblowing Policy.Retrieved May 4th, 2014, from http://ethics.csc.ncsu.edu /old/12_00/basics/whistle/rst/wstlblo_policy.html BizFilings. (2012). Using Policies to Address Employees’ Personal Use of BusinessEquipment. Retrieved May 4th, 2014, from

Towards the Quality of Higher Education

TOWARDS THE QUALITY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Brief review of the quality of Higher Education in Ancient India: The system of higher educaton is started from the ancient times in India. During the ancient times, Education was closely linked with religon. It was taken up by Teachers as a labour of love and by the students as part of their training for culture and citizenshp. It was not universal education. In regard to higher instituton of learning – Tols (Higher Education) was developed among the Hindus and Madrassah (Higher Education) was existed among the Muslim.Although the Hindu and Muslims had separate learning institution, many features were common to both the types of institution. Under the Buddhist rulers in India, Learning was fostered by the numerous monasteries under the guidance of monks and nuns. The Brahmanical system of education mainly centered at home of Individual Teacher was superseded by monasteries system of Buddhist education. For the first time in India, and p erhaps in the whole world, a great famous Buddhist seat of higher learning like Taxila, Nalanda, Vikramshila and Vallabhi Universities were flourished in India which can be compared with modern Universties.These Universities were better well organised than the Brahmanical higher education because they recieved state endowment for many centuries from the successive kings from the time of Buddha. The Universities introduced regular course of studies in different subjects and admission test for all students. There was no discrimination in admission and Technical Education and Women Education were also introduced as it recieved encouragement from the ruler and the rich people. Amongst these Universities of ancient India, Nalanda Universities was take its specialities.Students from China, Nepal, Tibet, Korea etc came to study and obtain valuable knowledge. Entrance examination was very strict and only 20 percent of the candidates succeeded in getting admission during this period. Brief r eview of Indian Education Commission in Modern India: The system of higher education, which we find today in our country, started after the advent of the British in India. When the Brtish established their authority in India, they did not willing to take responsibility of educating the Indian people. In order to trained some Indians for minor jobs in the company’s office, they started schools and colleges.By the charter act of 1813, only one lakh of rupees for the improvement of the quality of education was left. The British rulers only established many government and private colleges and the higher education was in a very disorganise at the time. Within a period of time, The British rulers realised that the necessity to organise and improved the quality of education and appointed Wood’s Despatched of 1854. As a result of the recommendations made by Wood’s Despatched of 1854, the Universities of Culcutta, Bombay and Madras were established n 1857 on the model of London University.On the model of the formers, Allahabad University was also established in 1882. But all universities performed the functioned of only conducting examinations and affiliating bodies and undertook no teaching and research. In order to enquired the standard of Indian education and prepared recommendations, the Government of India appointed various Indian Education Commissions and selected eminent educationist as a members. Within a period of hunhred years, sixth Education Commissions were appointed.The recommendations of sixth Indian Education Commissions can be conveniently studied under the following:- i) Indian Education Commission or Hunter Commisson, 1882:By accepting the recommendation of Hunter Commission 1882, the college education recieved a great impetus and a number of colleges were established during 1901-1902. ii) Indian Universities Commission in 1902:During the period of Lord Curzon, University Education made a great progress. In order to improve the q uality of University Education in all branches, Lord curzon adopted the policy of control and improvement.He appointed Indian Universities Commission in 1902 in order to enquired the conditions and working of the Indian Universities and made necessary suggestions. Two years later, Indian University Act 1904 was passed. This act brought many important change in the organisation, jurisdiction, powers and administration etc of the universties. The expansion of the university education was checked for sometime, due to lack of revolutionary change in the system of universities. But it was admitted later on which improved and reforms the conditions and standards of the contemporary universities and colleges. ii) Culcutta Univesity Commission or Sadler Commission, 1917:After the establishment of Allahabad Universities 1882, no new universitiy was established till 1917. However, a number of colleges were increased. In order to cope with the increased work, the Culcutta Univesity Commission or Sadler Commission was appointed by The British Government. Although, the commission was mainly interfere in the problems of Culcutta University, it gave out reforms and change which were great value into higher education in India as a whole. Now, the Universities were not only examining body, but became a centre of teaching and learning.By accepting recommendation of the Commission 1917, more than 16 universities were established in different places of India till 1947. iv) Indian University Education Commission or Radhakrishnan Commission, 1948:The expansion of higher education has recieved a great impetus after Independence. Number of institution in the field of higher education and enrollement of students in the centers of higher studies were increased year by year. The university education was imparted through arts, science and commerce and professional colleges, researched institution.The institutions deemed to be universities under the University Grants commission Act, 1956. In adition to Central universities, state universties and their affiliated colleges, Indira Gandhi Open Universty and other Open Universities are doing commendable job in the field of higher education. In order to meet the present and future requirements of the country, the Government of India appointed Indian Education Commission or Radhakrishnan Commission in 1948 to suggest improvements and extentions of th Indian Universities. The terms of reference of the commission were very wide and vast.It suggested that various aspects of the university Education in India and means for the improvement and reorganisation of the university education. Research and other standard of university educaton, problems of teachers, curriculum, medium of instructon, religious education, problem of discipline, health and residence of the students an such allied problems in the perspective of the natonal and international conditions. In fact, The report of this Commissions is the most comprehensive repo rt on education, but its recommendations is very important and far reaching consequences. ) Secondary Education Commission or Mudaliar Commission, 1952 vi) National Education Commission or Kothari Commission (1964-66): Since Independence, there has been a good deal of quantitative development of education but qualitative has lagged behind. Unimplementing of the policy of the directive principles of the constitution to make free and copulsory education below 14 years, problem of literacy, low standard of primary and secondary edcation, diversification of curriculum and problem of educated unemployment were the the main problems since Independence.In order to evaluate the different stages of education and to evolved a National system of Education, the Government of India appointed the Kothari Commission in July 14, 1964. The Commission submitted its report and recommendation in June, 1966. People expressed high hopes when the Reports of the Education commission was first published in 1966. Already, several years have passed, nothing has practically been done to achieved the targets as recommended by the commission. The commission give any useful suggestion an the source of finance, on which the implementation of the recommendations entirely depends.If it si of course a fact that it was not the bussiness of the commission to deal with the financial side, but we cannot ignore reality. The suggestion made by the Kothari Commission in respect of different organs of education were very important. The Government have already implemented some of the suuggestions and the effort are still being made to make important the rest of the suggestion. Taking all things into consideration, we may say that the report of the education Commission is a sincere attempt to improve the existing system of education in all aspects and in all stages.If it can be implemented, it will remove some of the glaring defects of our educational system. Problems Higher Education: It is clear from t he above discussion that the expansion of higher education has recieved a great impetus since independence. The policy of the government still has been to increase the number of the institutions of higher education rather than the aim at the qualitative progress of higher education. Besides this, the government did not pay proper attention to the multi-lateral problems of higher education and not made special effort to remove the defects of higher education.Since recommendation made by the Kothari Commission, the government declared National Educational Policy of 1986. It is good that is being given to the specializaton in higher education. The problems of the higher and University education in india is nothing but the problems of Indian society in general. If we want to established a society based on the principles of democratic socialism, we must have reoriented the entire educational structure. Without a hgh standard of general, vocatonal and professional education, democracy can not survived. But there is a still a lag between our Ideal and reality.Our Universities have not been able to shake off the heavy load of bookish knowledge. The main problems for the falling of the standard and quality of higher and universities education in India are under the following:- 1. No definite aims among students of higher education:One of the problem which checked the standard of higher education is its aimlessness. Most of the student are recieved higher education without having any definite aim. the student must have definite aim before starting hgher education. In order to raise the standard of higher education, the university should change the aims and objectives.Newmen remarks the aims of university education in 1952, â€Å"If a practical and must be assign to a university course, the i say it is training of good members of the society. † 2. Increase of Wastage and Stagnation:The problem of wastage and stagnaton exist in a greater degree at the stage of highe r and university education. Most of the important causes of wastage and stagnation are Ineffective methods of teaching, unhealthy environment of institution and society, defective system of curriculum and examination and lack of finance among the students etc.In order to solve this problem, it suggest that to make healthy environment of institutions and society, revised and reforms of curriculum and examination system, raise the standard of teaching and given grants and loans to effort the study of students. 3. Lack of interesting subjects in Curriculum:Most of the the curriculum of college are old and out of date and failed to fulfil the interest of the student which checked the intellectual developmentof the student. Radhakrishnan Commission remarks, â€Å"A curriculum which had validity in the vedic period or the renaissance cannot continue unaltered in the 20th century. To solve this problem, the curriculum should revised and reforms for the interest of young advanced students. 4. Specialisation in Education:University emphasized spacialization in different subjects. After completed University education, students acquired special knowledge and skills in some particular subjects. Their outlook remains narrow and unbalanced to became completely educated in real sense. This narrow specializaton can be remove by establishing harmony between general education and specialization which developed the personality of the students and will became dutiful citizens. Absence of proper Guidance and Councelling for student:The absence of proper guidande and councelling, the students select their course according to their own choice or with thw advice of some inexperience persons. Consequently, most of the students make a wrong choice in their subjects and lost interest in their study. In order to solve this problem, the educational institution should make provision of experience and trained persons to provide proper guidandance and councelling of students from the beginn ing till the end. 6. Low standard of Teaching:The standard of teaching in our colleges and university is very low.Many suggestions has made to raise the standard of teaching in education. The more prominents are – increase the salary of the teachers, balanced workload of teachers, improvement of service condition of teacher, provision of tutorial classes, well-organised libraries and laboratories, encouragement of debates and discussion, Professional training for Junior Lecturers and Re-orientation Course for new Lecturers. 7. Defective Examination System:The present examination system of our universities has many defects and severely criticized by ndian and foreign educatonist.The university education commission of 1949 points out that, â€Å"If we are any single reforms in universty, it should be that of examinaton. † It can be reforms through scientific method. In order to reforms Examination system, it suggest that adoption of continous comprehensive internal evalu ation, semester system and grading system. It also suggest to developed question banks, demarcation of syllabus, setting and moderations of question, Evaluation of answer script and conduct of examinations. 8. Indiscipline among the Student:The problem of indiscipline among students is very serious and complicated in educatonal institution.Financial irregularity, minor and disorderly misconduct, theft and burglary, sex misconduct, misuse of privledge and cheating n examination were the main problems of institutions. Professor Siddhant remarks, â€Å"the best way to solve is to divert the activities into healthy channels including sports, games, cooperative, living in hostels, self-management of masses, organise debates and symposia, councelling of indiscipline students etc. 9. Too much Interference of Student Societies in College Affairs:The student societies in educational institutions of higher education also make a serious problem.They were too much interfered in the affairs of the institutons which prove to be a scourge. In order to reduce this problem, the uiversity ntroduced legislaton for keeping control of student societies. In order to developed the intellectual powers of student and homely atmosphere of instituton, the student societies should also organised programme like leadership training, Life skills training, seminars, workshop etc. 10. Rapid increase of the number of Student:The development of higher education in India is taking place rapidly since Independence. The numbr of students in higher institution is constantly increasing.University Grants Commission remarks that, â€Å"If increasing number admtted in our universites without corresponding expansion of facilities, there is a great risk of the academic standard being imparted further. † In order to checked the ncreasng number of students in university, It has been suggested that the new and modern method of selective system of admission should be adopted. 11. Non-availability of Educatioal Facilities and Lack of Funds :The main reason for the low standard of education in universities is non-availability of educational facilities and lack of funds.The student face shortage of books, libraries are not well-equiped. In many degree college, no proper building and classroom and do not possess even playgrounds. To solve this problem, a high level committee should be appointed for providing necessary funds to the institution. The Government of India, the State Government and non-governmental organisations and the rich people should provide necessary funds and donations to raise the standard of higher education. 12. Poor conditions of the salary Teachers:The teachers of colleges and universties are getting less salaries and allownces in order to meet their expense.Consequently, they are not able to devote themvelves with heart and soul into the teaching works. The Commission has made important provisions to increase the salaries and allownces of the teachers at dif ferent stage should be implemented by the Government. 13. Too much burden of the works and service of the Teachers: The teachers also have been burdened with too much work. and not able to performed th teaching work properly. The prominence teacher of university were given research work.The Kothari Commission has remarked, â€Å"There is much serous concern that in many places there is too much teaching but relatively too little of good teaching. † The Education commission has made important provisions to improvement the works and service of the teachers should be implemented by the Government. 14. Wide gulf between the Teachers and Students:The increasing number of students in higher education making a wide gulf between the students and the teachers. The teachers not able to recognise each students of the class and no interaction between them.While in western countries the students and teachers work together like family and build good relationship between them, there is no r elatinship between the students and teachers and separated their interest in India. In order to build relationship between the students and the teachers, it is necessary to adopt tutorial system. Beside this, the educational institution should also organise more interaction programme like debate and discussion, seminar, workshop etc which help the students to increase their knowledge with the help of the teachers.Almost all the above problems have attracted the attention of the University Education Commission, which has made many suggestions to solve these problems. Most of these suggestions have been accepted by the government and many of them have already been implemented. It may, therefore, be hope that after solving all our present problems, the higher education will make the complete development of the personality of the youth and by developing their intellectual and physical powers will make them able citizens of the country.